Assessing Human Disturbance Threats in Caves on Community Lands in Kenya

Abstract

Caves in Kenya provide critical habitats for diverse bat species, supporting roosting, breeding, and foraging activities essential for their survival. Despite their ecological importance, many caves, particularly those located on unprotected community lands, are increasingly exposed to human disturbance, which can compromise habitat quality and bat population viability. This study assessed the type and intensity of disturbance threats across twelve caves, nine of which are in community lands caves in Kenya, aiming to identify high-risk sites and inform conservation priorities. Observations were quantified using a standardized scoring protocol (0–3) across nine categories of threats, including tourism, vegetation removal, plastic waste, artificial lighting, construction, agriculture/livestock, guano mining, religious use, and firewood collection. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize per-cave and per-threat metrics, while heatmap visualization and cluster analysis revealed patterns of shared and unique disturbances among sites. Tourism, plastic waste, and vegetation removal emerged as the most prevalent threats, whereas guano mining and firewood collection were less frequent. Shimoni cave recorded the highest cumulative threat score, reflecting intense human pressures, while caves such as Makuruhu exhibited relatively low disturbance levels. These results highlight that caves in community lands are subject to diverse anthropogenic pressures that, if unmanaged, could undermine bat conservation. Conservation interventions should prioritize high-risk caves through targeted and cluster-based strategies to mitigate human impacts and preserve cave ecosystem integrity. Conservation interventions should prioritize high-risk caves through targeted and cluster-based strategies to mitigate human impacts, integrate cave protection into local biodiversity management plans, and preserve bat populations that depend on these fragile ecosystems.